Let me preface this post with a  caveat: The paragraph spacing guidelines I provide here are based on the methods that have worked best for me. Your mileage may vary. I look forward to any comments and thoughts that you have, even if they run counter to my own.

The amount of space required between paragraphs depends on your taste and sensibilities. In fact, you don’t need to add extra space between paragraphs at all. Interparagraph spacing does not affect legibility as long as there are other sign posts that signify a new paragraph to the reader. For example, indenting the first line of a new paragraph is frequently used in lieu of paragraph spacing. Type purists will tell you never to use both indents and paragraph spacing to indicate a new paragraph, but there’s no reason, beyond convention, that you can’t use both.

Whether you use indents or vertical spacing to signify a new paragraph is up to you. The amount of vertical space between your paragraphs is largely an esthetic decision. Just make sure you abide by the laws of proximity by keeping information that belongs together within closer proximity than unrelated information:

• Keep  a heading closer to the paragraph that follows it.
• Keep a list closer to the paragraph that introduces it.

In regard to whether it is better to add the interparagraph spacing at the beginning of a paragraph or after depends largely on your documents, but be consistent.

This is an example of paragraph spacing being applied above and below. Notice that (aside from the first paragraph style) each paragraph style has more space above than below. Adding more space above ensure that lists appear closer to their introductory paragraph. Also notice that the list contains tighter paragraph spacing.

Where I work, our paragraph styles contain both space before and space after. We add 9 points above and 6 points below normal paragraphs. Lists are a little tighter than that (4 points above and 4 points below). The first paragraph after a heading has zero points before, which enables that paragraph to align with the sideheads in FrameMaker. Many organizations have a dedicated paragraph style for the first paragraph in a section, because often the first paragraph contains a drop-cap or some other signpost that a new section or article is beginning.

Incidentally, in both Word and FrameMaker, you can add space above and below paragraphs, and the software will reflect the greater of the two spaces. For example, if you have a paragraph with 6 points below followed by a paragraph with 9 points above, there will only be 9 points of space between them (not 15 points).

That is the system that works for our publications. If you want to use space before and after, as we do, make the space before larger than the space after. This will ensure that your lists are in closer proximity to the preceding paragraph.

InDesign users, beware! InDesign does not handle paragraph spacing the same way FrameMaker and Word do. InDesign adds the above and below spacing, so that 9-point space and that 6-point space will actually create a 15-point space. If you are using InDesign, I suggest that you be consistent in your application of interparagraph spacing: all above or all below. If you try to mix and match, you will only confuse yourself and others on your team.

Michael Opsteegh presenting "Putting Your Best Font Forward" at STC's 2011 Summit. Photo courtesy Jamie Gillenwater.

Over the past several months, I have had the opportunity to talk to groups of technical and professional writers about improving the typography their documents. It has been an extreme pleasure to speak with these writers, and each group seemed eager to learn about typography and engaged in lively discussions.

The presentation, “Putting Your Best Font Forward,” is essentially a semester-long course on typography crammed into to an hour or hour and a half and focuses on issues that seem to plague technical documentation.

It was a supreme and humbling pleasure to be able to bring this presentation to the Society for Technical Communication’s 2011 Summit in Sacramento, California. The presentation was so well attended that I didn’t bring enough handouts, which was unfortunate, because I included a lot of practical information that could not be covered within the time limitations.

To those of you in attendance who did not receive a handout, I owe you my sincere apologies. I am very grateful that you attended. You can download the slides and the handouts below. I hope to all of you in Chicago in 2012!

Presentation slides

Presentation handouts

The puzzled looks and the multiple muddled voices murmuring “An x isn’t a multiplication sign?” told me that a lot of people don’t know the differences between these characters.

The photo (below) on the left shows how many people type multiplication signs and inch measurements, with an x and with quotation marks. The photo (below) on the right shows a real multiplication sign and double-prime marks indicating the inches.

The photo on the left uses an x and quotation marks. The photo on the right uses a multiplication sign and double-prime marks.

Notice that the real multiplication sign does not have serifs, sits above the baseline, and each of the arms and legs are congruent. To type a real multiplication sign in Windows applications, press Alt-0215. In HTML, type ×. Macintosh users, unfortunately, will need to select the multiplication sign from an application’s Character Palette or Glyphs Palette.

Notice that the double-prime marks don’t curl like quotation marks (sometimes called “Smart Quotes” or “typographers quotes”). Typing double-prime marks for inches is easy. In Windows applications, press Alt-Shift-″. Macintosh users, press Control-Shift-″. In HTML, type ″ (note capital P).

Typing prime marks for feet is just as easy. In Windows applications, press Alt-′. Macintosh users, press Control-′. In HTML, type ′ (note lowercase p).

And now you have something new to talk about at the next cocktail party.

Adobe Illustrator error: Font Problems

A message saying you don’t have the fonts installed on your computer. Of course! If you proceed by clicking Open, the type with the missing font will be reformatted using a font that you have installed on your system, thereby, undoing your designer’s beautiful typography. Whatever you want to fix isn’t worth that headache.
What you should do instead is open the PDF or EPS file in Adobe Acrobat Professional or Extended and convert the text to outlines.
A few notes before you should consider doing this:

• The text will retain its formatting, but will no longer be editable.
• If the PDF is going online, screen readers for the visually impaired will not be able to read it.
• If the problem you want to fix is textual, you’re screwed. Call your designer who’s on vacation; she’ll need to modify the source file. (You will owe her for the rest of your life.)

This procedure used to be fairly straightforward until Adobe released Acrobat 7 a few years ago. Now, it’s a little tricky. Follow the steps below to convert text to outlines in Acrobat Professional or Extended:

1. Open the PDF or EPS file in Acrobat.
   (You want to open the file in Acrobat, because Acrobat will display the type correctly, using fonts embedded in the file, even if the fonts are not installed on your computer.)
2. Click Document, select Watermark, and select Add.
   The Add Watermark window opens.
3. Type a period (or any other character) in the Text text box.
4. Drag the Opacity slider to 0%.
   
5. Click OK.
6. Click Advanced, select Print Production, and select Flattener Preview.
   The Flattener Preview window opens.
7. Select the Convert All Text to Outlines check box.
8. Select the pages you need to convert to text from the Apply to PDF group.
9. Click Apply.
   
10. If Acrobat warns you that the operation cannot be undone, click Yes to proceed.
11. Click OK to close the Flattener Preview window.
12. Click File and select Save As to save your outlined text PDF as a different file from your original.
13. Close the file in Acrobat and open it in Illustrator.

You’ll notice that the text displays as it should, because it’s outlined. You can’t edit the text, but at least you can change the graphics to your heart’s content.

Leading is measured from one baseline to the next baseline.

Leading is the space between lines of type. Technically, leading is measured from baseline to baseline. The default leading for body text is approximately 120 percent of the point size of the type. For example, 12-point type would be set with a leading of 14.4 points (written as 12/14.4). The default isn’t always appropriate. If fact, it’s rarely appropriate.

Relying on default leading settings can get you into trouble. Headings, text set in large type, and text set in all caps requires less leading.

It may seem counterintuitive, but often the larger the type, the less leading is required in proportion to the type size. (Huh? That sentence made sense in my head.) For example, text set in 8-point type would require 10 points of leading, but 72-point type might require only 72 points leading, or no additional leading, which is also called “set solid.”

Computer applications vary on how they measure leading. Some word processors like Microsoft Word measure leading as the difference between the type size and line height. For example, such design applications as Adobe InDesign, Adobe Photoshop, and Adobe Illustrator show type set at 12/14 as you might expect as 12-point type on 14-point leading. Word, however, shows type set at 12/14 as 12 points with 2 points of line spacing (which is essentially the same as 12/14). Note that paragraph spacing is different than leading in that paragraph spacing is the space between distinct paragraphs of text.

Deciding how much leading your text requires is not a straightforward process, because, in addition to type size, you must also consider x-height and line length. I can’t offer a formula for determining the amount of line spacing required for comfortable reading; it’s a matter of aesthetics. As you consider the proper line spacing, take the following factors into account:

• Font Size. Normal text of 10 to 12 points is generally set with one to two points of line spacing. Smaller fonts require more line spacing to be legible. Likewise, large heading or display type will likely require less leading in proportion to the text size.
• X-Height. X-height is the distance between the baseline and median of lowercase letters. The larger the x-height, the more leading is required because the reader needs more space to recognize the word shapes.
• Line Length. Longer lines of text require more line space to prevent the eye from reading the same line twice. Lines of 75 characters or more should be double-spaced. Keep your body text between 35 and 70 characters for easy reading.
• All Caps. Type set in all caps requires less leading because there are no descenders hanging below the baseline, and therefore, there is no chance of collisions between the descenders of one line with the ascenders of the following line.

Notice how fine print and disclosure statements commonly ignore these guidelines. Fine print is typically set in 8-point type or smaller, use a typeface with a large x-height, and little or no leading. Breaking with these guidelines makes the text unreadable, and, if you ask me, attorneys do this on purpose because they don’ want anyone to actually read the disclosures. Follow the guidelines I have outlined here when setting the leading for your own text. After all, you want people to actually read it.

Helvetica, the typeface, is everywhere. You cannot escape it.  It is ubiquitous. Every day Helvetica tells us, “Do not enter,” “Public Parking,” or “Watch your step.” The IRS uses Helvetica on our tax forms. The EPA uses Helvetica. The television and motion picture rating systems use Helvetica. Next to Times New Roman, Helvetica is probably the most widely used typeface on the planet.

Many, many companies use some iteration of Helvetica as the typeface in their logos.

As a technical communicator, I am fascinated by typography. Different typefaces can create different moods, reduce or improve readability, and affect the overall persuasiveness of a communication. Helvetica, however, seems to transcend these characteristics of type. It is neutral, efficient, and utilitarian. For example, the following corporate names probably conjure up different feelings within you: American Airlines, Staples, Bloomingdale’s, Greyhound, Sears, Fendi, Crate & Barrel, Energizer, and Texaco. All of these companies (and many more) have chosen Helvetica as their corporate logotype, and yet, we probably never noticed.

When Helvetica was created for Linotype in 1957, it was an instant hit. Helvetica was clean and modern, and it was adopted by many corporations to modernize and revamp their images. Helvetica became even more popular when it was licensed by Apple and included with every Macintosh computer, and when Helvetica’s illegitimate (near identical, but not quite) twin, Arial, was included on every Windows PC. Legend has it, Microsoft created Arial because it was too cheap to license Helvetica. Whether this is true or not, I can’t say, but Arial has expanded Helvetica’s reach into our consciousness.

One graphic designer interviewed in Helvetica said that Helvetica is so ubiquitous that it’s like air—it means nothing. Another graphic designer said that using Helvetica was like saying, “Don’t read me—I will bore you to tears.” (Only he used much more colorful language than I can use here.)

Depending on the intent of your communication, you might want to steer clear of Helvetica—and Arial—unless you have a special need to assert your document’s neutrality or give your readers the impression that your document will bore them.

If you get a chance to watch Helvetica, take it. You’ll get a better idea of how typography affects mood and readability, as well as the history of one particular typeface. Here’s a trailer to pique your interest even more.

Like fashion, type styles have changed over time. Most type styles are derived from the time or place in which they were developed and gained popularity. Having said that, many typefaces that fit within a certain style may have been created outside of the time or place of origin typically associated with that type style. You can categorize most typefaces in one of the following seven type styles:

There are seven main categories of type. The blue lines indicate the angles of the stress, the slope of the terminals, and the brackets of the serifs.

• Old Style. Old Style type is very legible, has minimal contrast between thick and thin lines, rounded brackets where the stokes and serifs meet, and a diagonal stress. The line through the thinnest parts of the O in the figure to the left shows the diagonal stress. (France 1600s.)
• Transitional. Transitional type bridged the Old Style and Modern typefaces and had more refined serifs, greater contrast between thick and thin strokes, and moderately diagonal stress. (England 1700s.)
• Modern. Modern type has even more contrast between thick and thin strokes, squared brackets where strokes and serifs meet, and vertical stress. (Italy 1700s.)
• Slab Serif (Egyptian). Slab Serifs are characterized by very thick serifs, little or no bracketing, and little or no stress. (United States 1800s.)
• Sans Serif. Sans Serif typefaces do not have serifs and typically do not have any stress. (Switzerland 1900s.)
• Script. Script typefaces are designed to mimic handwriting and calligraphy.
• Decorative. Decorative typefaces are designed to add splash to your documents, but should be used sparingly. Outside of bullet characters, decorative type probably has no place in your résumé.

Typeface styles are evocative. They’re reminiscent of the time and place in which they were created because they embody the art and architecture of the time and place of origin. Choose typefaces based on their associated mood and tone.

Form Follows Function

More important than the tone of our document, your type should be suited to the utility of your text. You should chose typefaces that are appropriate for the situations in which they will be read. For example a weighty serif typeface is appropriate for road signs. Could you imagine speeding along the expressway trying to decipher a road sign written in a lavish script typeface? You couldn’t. Likewise, a typeface with heavy serifs would be difficult to read in the setup instructions for a home theatre, where the user is probably crouched in a tight, dark space as he plugs in equipment. So, you can see that the utility of your text will generally dictate the tone and the style of typefaces you use.

Speaking of special characters…. Sorry for the painful, cheesy segway.

As businesses grow internationally, and as languages commingle and borrow words from each other, we must be able to type diacritics and special characters that do not appear on our standard keyboards. Words and phrases that we use frequently, like résumé, café, cliché, über-, and à la carte require accented characters. Mathematical symbols and some punctuation are further examples of special characters.

You can access special characters in Microsoft Office 2007 or Office 2008 applications from the Symbols palette by clicking Insert and selecting Symbol. Double-clicking a character inserts it into your text.

If you’re an Adobe InDesign user, you can access special characters from the Glyphs palette by clicking Type and selecting Glyphs. Double-clicking a character inserts it into your text. InDesign allows you to save sets of special characters that you use frequently.

With FrameMaker 9, Adobe added a Character Palette. To open the Character Palette, click File, select Utilities, and select Character Palette. Double-clicking a character inserts it into your text.

As convenient as these palettes are, nothing beats a quick, easy keyboard shortcut. Here is a table that will help you type some of the most commonly used special characters, or glyphs, in Mac OS X and Windows applications or in HTML for the Web. Adobe FrameMaker has its own keyboard shortcuts for special characters, but it also recognizes the Windows Alt key combinations. Download Special Characters PDF.



What’s the Point?

Type is generally measured in points and picas. These measurements can easily be converted to inches.

A point is a unit of measurement held over from the olden days of manual typesetting. Points are used to measure the size of a font and the space between lines. Another measurement, the pica, is used to measure the length of a line of type. You probably won’t use picas unless you are using a page layout application like Adobe InDesign.

The following table describes the relationship between points, picas, and inches.

Type purists would tell you that there are actually 72.27 points per inch. The difference, however, is nearly imperceptible, and most software programs use the 72 points per inch measurement unless you change the default settings.

You can write out type measurements in a variety of ways. For example, 18-point type could be represented as 1p6 or 0p18 in pica-speak.

I know working in points and picas is difficult to get used to, but if you’re serious about typography and page design, you’re going to have to suck it up. Measuring in inches is fine for our example of 18-point type (or 1p6). 18 points is easily converted to 0.25 inch. If your type is set to 16 points (or 1p4), however, the conversion to inches is not so simple: 0.2222 inch.

Size Matters

The size of a font is measured from just above the ascender height to just below the descender line.

Font size can best be described as the measurement from the bottom of the descenders to the top of the ascenders, but, technically, there’s a little space below the descenders and above the ascenders that gets counted in the font size of computerized type. For example, if you were to measure from the bottom of the descenders to the top of the ascenders of Times New Roman set at 72 points, you might only measure 66 points.

Back in the day, the font size was measured by the actual block the metal type was mounted on. The metal type was not mounted to the edge of the block, so that little space below the descenders and above the ascenders is another holdover from the days of manual typesetting.

There are additional terms that are used when measuring spaces or indents, but spaces are a topic for another day.

You may have noticed that an uppercase A is drastically different than its lowercase counterpart (a), and indeed, very different than the letter Z. Before we can understand the differences between letters, we must understand the parts that make up letters.

Here are some of the most common terms that describe the physical characteristics of type:

• Ascender. Ascenders are the parts of some lowercase letters that extend above the meanline. For example, the strokes in b, d, and h extend up.
• Bowl. A bowl is the curved part of a letter that encloses a counter.
• Counter. The counter is the space that is enclosed or partially enclosed by the strokes of a letter. For example, the hole or bowl created in such letters as b, d, o, and p are counters.
• Descender. Descenders are the parts of lowercase letters that extend below the baseline. For example, the strokes in g, p, and y extend below the invisible line on which the letters sit.
• Ear. An ear is the little piece that extends of the bowl of a lowercase letter. For example, many forms of the lowercase g have an ear.
• Link. A link is a piece that connects two bowls. For example, some forms of the lowercase g have a link.
• Loop. Like the bowl, the loop encloses a counter, but is specific to the lower part of the lowercase g.
• Serif. Serifs are the finishing strokes or “feet” that appear in some typefaces. Typefaces that lack serifs are called “sans serifs,” which means, “without serifs.”
• Thick and Thin. Thick and thin strokes are the different weights or thicknesses of lines in a letter. The thick and thin strokes denote the stress of a letter.

Anatomy of Type: The Parts of Letterforms

Here are some of the most common terms that describe the space occupied by type or the boundaries of type:

• Ascender Height. The ascender height indicates the height of the ascenders of lowercase letters, which are often higher than the cap height.
• Baseline. The baseline is the imaginary line on which the letters sit.
• Cap Height. The cap height is the imaginary line that rests on the tops of capital letters.
• Descender Line. The descender line indicates the floor of the descenders of lowercase letters.
• Meanline. The meanline runs along the tops of the main parts of lowercase letters.
• X-height. The x-height is measured from the baseline to the meanline and is so called because it is the height of a lowercase x. X-height varies from typeface to typeface and plays an important role in determining how dense type appears and how much space is required between lines of type.

Anatomy of Type: Space

This isn’t the end of your anatomy and vocabulary lesson, but it’s a good start.